science denialnoun phrase
SY-ents dih-NY-ul
The rejection of well-established scientific conclusions — such as climate change, vaccine safety, or evolution — despite overwhelming evidence. Science denial is distinguished from genuine scientific skepticism by its motivated, non-evidence-based character.
"Science denial about vaccine safety has led to the resurgence of diseases that had been nearly eradicated."
denialismnoun
dih-NY-ul-iz-um
A pattern of thought in which a person refuses to accept an established truth, typically employing motivated reasoning, selective use of evidence, or conspiracy theories to sustain their position. Denialism is more systematic than mere doubt.
"Climate denialism often relies on the same rhetorical strategies used to cast doubt on the link between smoking and cancer."
manufactured doubtnoun phrase
man-yoo-FAK-churd dowt
Deliberate and organized efforts — often funded by industry — to create the appearance of scientific uncertainty where genuine consensus exists. The strategy exploits the public's tendency to suspend judgment when "both sides" seem present.
"Tobacco companies spent decades manufacturing doubt about smoking's dangers by funding studies that muddied the scientific consensus."
conspiracy theorynoun phrase
kun-SPEER-uh-see THEER-ee
An explanation for an event or situation that invokes a secret plot by powerful actors, typically unfalsifiable and resistant to counter-evidence. Conspiracy theories often spread because they provide simple, emotionally satisfying answers to complex events.
"The conspiracy theory that the moon landing was faked persists despite vast evidence and thousands of people who worked on the mission."
epistemic anxietynoun phrase
ep-ih-STEE-mik ang-ZY-uh-tee
Discomfort or distress caused by uncertainty about what is true, which can drive people toward simple or absolute explanations. Conspiracy theories and science denial often flourish in conditions of high epistemic anxiety.
"The pandemic produced widespread epistemic anxiety — people were so unsettled by uncertainty that false certainties found a ready audience."
misinformationnoun
mis-in-for-MAY-shun
False or inaccurate information, regardless of intent. Misinformation spreads when people share content they believe to be true without verifying it. It is distinguished from disinformation, which involves deliberate deception.
"The misinformation spread so quickly on social media that the correction never caught up with the original false claim."
disinformationnoun
dis-in-for-MAY-shun
False information that is deliberately created and spread in order to deceive. Disinformation campaigns are often coordinated and may be sponsored by governments, corporations, or political actors.
"The investigation revealed a coordinated disinformation campaign designed to undermine public trust in the election results."
motivated reasoningnoun phrase
MOH-tih-vay-ted REE-zun-ing
The tendency to evaluate evidence in a biased way in order to reach a conclusion one wants to reach, rather than following the evidence wherever it leads. Motivated reasoning feels like logical thinking but is driven by emotion or self-interest.
"His motivated reasoning allowed him to dismiss every study that contradicted his dietary beliefs while accepting every study that confirmed them."
pseudosciencenoun
SOO-doh-sy-ents
A collection of beliefs or practices that claim the status of science but lack its methods, standards, or accountability. Pseudoscience mimics scientific language while rejecting scientific scrutiny.
"Astrology is often cited as pseudoscience — it makes predictions, uses charts and calculations, but cannot be falsified or replicated."
falsifiabilitynoun
fawl-sih-fy-uh-BIL-ih-tee
The capacity of a claim to be proven wrong by evidence. Karl Popper argued that falsifiability is the defining feature of genuine scientific claims: if nothing could in principle disprove it, it is not science.
"'God did it' is unfalsifiable — no experiment could disprove it — which is why scientists do not treat it as a scientific explanation."
anti-intellectualismnoun
an-tee-in-tel-EK-choo-ul-iz-um
Hostility or distrust toward intellectuals, expertise, and academic or scientific institutions. Anti-intellectualism portrays expert knowledge as elitist, untrustworthy, or disconnected from common sense.
"The politician's anti-intellectualism played well with voters who felt that experts had failed them and no longer deserved their trust."
echo chambernoun phrase
EK-oh CHAYM-ber
An environment — often online — in which a person encounters only information and opinions that reinforce their existing views, with dissenting perspectives filtered out. Echo chambers intensify beliefs and reduce exposure to challenge.
"The algorithm created an echo chamber where he only ever saw news stories that confirmed his deepest fears about the government."
filter bubblenoun phrase
FIL-ter BUB-ul
A state of intellectual isolation produced by personalization algorithms that show users only content matching their past behavior and preferences. Filter bubbles are often invisible to the people inside them.
"She didn't realize she was in a filter bubble until she visited a friend and saw a completely different version of her social media feed."
scientific consensusnoun phrase
sy-un-TIF-ik KON-sen-sus
The collective judgment, position, and opinion of the community of scientists in a particular field based on evidence. Scientific consensus does not mean unanimity but represents the overwhelming weight of expert agreement.
"There is clear scientific consensus that human activity is the primary driver of recent climate change — over 97% of climate scientists agree."
unfalsifiable claimnoun phrase
un-FAWL-sih-fy-uh-bul klaym
A claim structured in such a way that no possible evidence could prove it wrong. Conspiracy theories and some religious claims are unfalsifiable — every piece of counter-evidence is incorporated as further proof of the conspiracy or mystery.
"'The scientists are all in on it' is an unfalsifiable claim — it dismisses all scientific evidence by assuming the scientists are corrupt."
anecdotal evidencenoun phrase
an-ek-DOH-tul EV-ih-dens
Evidence based on personal accounts or individual cases rather than systematic study. Anecdotal evidence is vivid and persuasive but does not reliably establish patterns, causation, or generalizable facts.
"'My uncle smoked all his life and lived to ninety' is anecdotal evidence — it cannot refute the statistical link between smoking and cancer."
cognitive closurenoun phrase
KOG-nih-tiv KLOH-zhur
The desire for a definite answer to a question rather than tolerating ambiguity or uncertainty. People with high need for cognitive closure are more attracted to simple, clear worldviews and more likely to accept conspiracy theories.
"Cognitive closure made her uncomfortable with 'we don't know yet' — she preferred a wrong but definite answer to an honest uncertainty."
inoculation theorynoun phrase
ih-nok-yoo-LAY-shun THEER-ee
A psychological approach to combating misinformation by pre-emptively exposing people to weakened forms of misleading arguments, so that they can recognize and resist them later. Like a vaccine for false beliefs.
"Inoculation theory suggests that teaching teenagers to spot manipulation tactics makes them more resistant to extremist recruitment."
cherry-pickingnoun / verb phrase
CHAIR-ee PIK-ing
The selective use of data or evidence — choosing only the examples that support a conclusion while ignoring those that contradict it. Cherry-picking is a common strategy in both pseudoscience and political rhetoric.
"The report was criticized for cherry-picking studies that supported its conclusions while ignoring the larger body of contradictory evidence."
Dunning-Kruger effectnoun phrase
DUN-ing KROO-ger ih-FEKT
A cognitive bias in which people with limited knowledge in a domain overestimate their own competence, while true experts tend to underestimate theirs. It explains why novices often feel more confident than specialists.
"After reading one article about vaccines, he felt more certain about the topic than the immunologists who had spent careers studying it — a textbook Dunning-Kruger effect."
epistemic cowardicenoun phrase
ep-ih-STEE-mik KOW-er-dis
The choice to avoid honest intellectual engagement — staying vague, noncommittal, or evasive in order to escape controversy or social disapproval. Epistemic cowardice allows false beliefs to flourish unchallenged.
"The reporter practiced epistemic cowardice by presenting 'both sides' of the climate debate even though one side had no scientific support."
trust deficitnoun phrase
trust DEF-ih-sit
A widespread erosion of public confidence in institutions, experts, or authorities. A trust deficit makes populations more susceptible to alternative explanations, including conspiracy theories and misinformation.
"Decades of corporate and political scandals created a trust deficit that made it easy for conspiracy theories to fill the space left by discredited institutions."
illusory pattern perceptionnoun phrase
ih-LOO-zor-ee PAT-urn pur-SEP-shun
The tendency to perceive meaningful patterns in random or unrelated information. This cognitive tendency is thought to underlie both superstition and conspiracy thinking, as the mind seeks connections that may not exist.
"Illusory pattern perception leads people to find hidden messages in coincidences that are, statistically, entirely random."
post-truthadjective
POHST-trooth
Describing a cultural or political environment in which appeals to emotion and personal belief have more influence on public opinion than objective facts. In a post-truth climate, factual corrections may have little persuasive power.
"Commentators worried that the election marked the arrival of post-truth politics, where a lie repeated confidently outperformed a carefully evidenced truth."
backfire effectnoun phrase
BAK-fyr ih-FEKT
The phenomenon — disputed in more recent research — in which correcting a person's false belief causes them to hold it more strongly, especially when the belief is tied to identity. It underscores the difficulty of simply presenting facts to change minds.
"The campaign to correct the misinformation may have triggered a backfire effect, leaving voters more convinced than before."